实验仪器使用技术

X-ray microscopy and tomography can provide the three-dimensional density distribution within cells and tissues without staining and slicing. In addition, chemical information—i.e. the elemental distribution—can be retrieved by X-ray spectro-microscopy based on contrast ...

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a powerful technique for analyzing the structure, properties, and interactions of living cells down to molecular resolution. Rather than using an incident beam as in optical and electron microscopies, AFM measures the tiny forces acting between a sharp tip ...

The cerebral vascular system services the constant demand for energy during neuronal activity in the brain. Attempts to delineate the logic of neurovascular coupling have been greatly aided by the advent of two-photon laser scanning microscopy to concurrently image blood flow and the ac ...

Microscopic in vivo measurements of cerebral oxygenation are of key importance for understanding normal cerebral energy metabolism and its dysregulation in a wide range of clinical conditions. Relevant cerebral pathologies include compromised blood perfusion following s ...

Microglial cells are the innate immune cells of the central nervous system. In the healthy adult brain “resting” ramified microglia continuously palpate their environment to monitor the integrity of and to react to any disturbance of brain homeostasis. During injury, inflammation, and ...

Mounting evidence from in vitro experiments supports bidirectional interactions between astrocytes and neurons, suggesting glial involvement in neuronal information processing in the brain. Elevation of the cytosolic calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration has been suggested to ...

Voltage-sensitive dyes can be topically applied to the surface of the brain in order to label membranes in the supragranular layers of the neocortex. Fluorescence signals from voltage-sensitive dyes in vivo correlate linearly with membrane potential of excitatory layer 2/3 neurons wi ...

Translating the advances seen recently in recording from neurons in vivo to dendritic recordings presents special difficulties. In vivo two-photon imaging of dendrites was achieved over a decade ago and is still the method of choice for recording from small dendritic compartments in sin ...

Mammalian cortical neurons integrate sensory information that arrives through numerous synaptic inputs located on their dendrites. Here we introduce an approach to identify sensory-evoked dendritic input sites in cortical neurons in vivo involving the use of two-photon calci ...

Optogenetic tools have gained popularity for enabling manipulation of specified populations of neurons on a precise temporal scale. These opsins, as the proteins are known, utilize retinal (Vitamin A) as a co-factor—in a form related to the same molecule used by the human retina as a light-sens ...

Chronic in vivo two-photon imaging of genetically encoded sensors has recently enabled the measurement of activity from the same individual neurons repeatedly in different imaging sessions over months, opening new possibilities to investigate the function and plasticity of neu ...

Optical imaging is developing towards the method of choice for monitoring the activities of large numbers of cells in the cortex of living rodents. During the last decade this approach was fueled by methodological progress in both optical instrumentation and fluorescent indicators of n ...

The optical properties of neural tissues play critical roles in all types of optical imaging methods. The wavelength-dependent absorption and scattering properties of tissue influence imaging resolution, penetration depth, and often provide sources of contrast. Therefore, qu ...

In this chapter I will give a brief general introduction to optical imaging and then discuss in more detail some of the methods specifically used for imaging cortical dynamics today. Absorption and fluorescence microscopy can be used to form direct, diffraction-limited images but standa ...

When mammals such as mice, cats, monkeys, or humans act in the world, they continually make behaviorally relevant decisions based on perceived sensory information and memorized experiences and they constantly adapt to outside challenges through learning. These cognitive capabil ...

Hallucinogenic activity, by definition, can be measured only in human subjects. Nevertheless, there may be an animal counterpart, or a behavioral or physiological response that parallels hallucinogenic activity/potency in humans and will be a useful predictor of hallucinogenic p ...

For 50 years, since the original work by (1940), rats have been used in experiments to model human alcohol abuse. The use of a nonhuman species, such as the rat, to model a behavior that seems to be inherently human has been justified in terms of the relatively economical and convenient provision of large, gen ...

Drug tolerance can be broadly defined as a reduction in the effects of a drug as a consequence of repeated exposure to that drug. This is shown as a shift to the right of the dose-response curve (DRC) of a drug, meaning that a higher dose of the drug is required to produce the same degree of effect in a tolerant individual as ...

With the pioneering work of Weeks (1961,1962) and others (Thompson and Schuster, 1964; Collins and Weeks, 1965; Deneau et al., 1969; Yanagita and Takahashi, 1973), which showed that laboratory animals would voluntarily ingest psychoactive drugs, an enormous field of research has developed ...

In the late 1950s, researchers at Hoffmann-La Roche discovered that benzodiazepines were able to cause changes in animal behavior that resembled those caused by barbiturates and meprobamate. Shortly thereafter, chlordiazepoxide was introduced ino clinical practice as an anxio ...