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The role of apoptosis in development and neurodegeneration has become increasingly apparent in the past 10 yr. Normal apoptosis occurs in the central nervous system (CNS) from the embryonic stage through senescence, with different cells in each region of the nervous system having charac ...

Cells that make up the nervous system interact in complex, dynamic structural and biochemical contexts to generate organ function. A neurotoxicant that alters the activities of a particular cell type also induces secondary changes in the interactions between this cell and other cells. A ...

Differentiation is a complex process by which a terminal cell phenotype is determined. During neural development, in vivo cells of the nervous system reach this terminal phenotype through both preprogrammed genetic signaling and epigenetic signaling. This genetic program can set up ...

Of all known neurotoxicants, lead (Pb) has received by far the most research attention. Because of increasing awareness of its untoward effects, investigation of the metal’s central nervous system (CNS) actions has extended over several decades and across multiple experimental speci ...

Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-DE) is one of the most widely used and versatile methods of protein expression profiling among a rapidly growing arsenal of proteomics technologies. 2-DE combines two orthogonal and independent electrophoretic steps: is ...

Difference in-gel electrophoresis (DIGE) is a recent adaptation of conventional two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) that incorporates novel fluorescent labels, has multiplex attributes, and boasts software-assisted image analysis. Combined, these character ...

Major technological advances have made proteomics an extremely active field for biomarker discovery in recent years due primarily to the development of newer mass spectrometric technologies and the explosion in genomic and protein bioinformatics. This leads to an increased emph ...

Proteomic analysis has proved to be key to determining drug mechanisms and assessing toxicologic potential during preclinical screening studies. A major goal in proteomics is to accurately measure changes in the relative abundance of large sets of proteins in complex biological sys ...

The ProteinChip SELDI System and chip arrays provide a sensitive, high-throughput methodology for protein biomarker discovery. The combination of retentate chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry allows for the detection of increased peak numbers even when pro ...

Metabonomics as an important component of functional genomics and system biology has gained increasing interest in drug development and biomarker discovery. Comprehensive metabonomics investigations are primarily a challenge for analytical chemistry. The main advanta ...

The sandwich ELISA microarray is a powerful screening tool in biomarker discovery and validation because of its ability to simultaneously probe for multiple proteins in a miniaturized assay. The technical challenges of generating and processing the arrays are numerous. However, ca ...

Metabolomics provides a powerful set of tools for pharmaceutical and clinical research in a number of important areas that include drug development, early disease detection, patient stratification for treatment, and information on disease processes. With its ability to discover n ...

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS)-based metabolomics profiling methods have been developed and used for plant metabolite profiling since the 1980s. Only during the past few years has the technology been more widely used for metabolomics studies in animals and humans wi ...

In recent years, proteomics has driven developments of mass spectrometric approaches. Simultaneously, the research community has regained a major interest in lipids, with mass spectrometry unambiguously facilitating the development of lipidomics. Quantitative determ ...

The era of increased application of pharmacodynamic biomarker measures for early-phase drug development is upon us in response to the introduction to the clinic of targeted therapeutics. This unprecedented opportunity to perform measures of human physiology responding to pharm ...

Large-scale gene expression profiling with microarray platforms represents a new approach to identify much needed, novel mechanism-based biomarkers of toxicity for use in preclinical and clinical studies. These biomarkers may have diagnostic and/or predictive values and may c ...

Biomarkers have shown great potential in molecular classification and targeted treatment of human diseases. Biomarkers are also expected to play an increasingly important role in all phases of drug development as well as regulatory decision making. However, translating biomark ...

One of the primary goals of genome-wide expression profiling is to identify subsets of gene transcripts that can be associated with specific biological conditions. Once these gene expression “signatures” have been elucidated, they can be used in screening assays to identify compounds t ...

The data generated from the Human Genome Project has led to an explosion of technology for low-, medium-, and high-throughput genotyping methods. Pyrosequencing is a genotyping assay based on sequencing by synthesis. Short runs of sequence around each polymorphism are generated, allowi ...

Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) has been extensively used to evaluate gene expression in a variety of biological contexts. In this review, we provide a general overview of the SAGE methodology and its major applications. Furthermore, we provide a detailed, day-by-day based protoc ...